Advanced Materials Synthesis

The advanced materials synthesis group focuses on the design and fabrication of new materials to meet the changing needs of LLNL programs, particularly in the areas of high-energy-density science and renewable energy technologies.

Our research efforts support a variety of LLNL missions for the Weapons & Complex Integration, Global Security, and National Ignition Facility directorates, as well as external sponsors.

Learn more about advanced materials synthesis at LLNL by exploring our focus areas below.

Focus Areas

Porous materials

We design and fabricate a wide variety of low-density foam materials in support of a number of critical LLNL programs, including:

High-energy-density science
Energy storage and conversion
Water treatment

Feedstocks for advanced manufacturing

We synthesize custom feedstocks (or inks) for 3D printing technologies that enable the fabrication of unique material architectures such as:

Polymers
Ceramics
Carbon
Composites

Light-emitting materials

We have world-class expertise in the design of novel light-emitting materials, including single crystal, transparent ceramics, and plastics, for use in radiation detection, imaging, and lighting. Our two main materials are:

Transparent optical ceramics
Lighting phosphors

Functional polymer design

One of our core capabilities is the design of novel polymer formulations to support important Weapons & Complex Integration and National Ignition Facility program efforts. These designs include:

Direct ink writing of silicones
Doped plastics
Ultralow density foams

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Y. Song, T. Liu, F. Qian, C. Zhu, B. Yao, E. Duoss, C. Spadaccini, M. Worsley, and Y. Li, Three-dimensional carbon architectures for electrochemical capacitors, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 509, 529 (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2017.07.081. [Featured on cover]

C. Zhu, T. Liu, F. Qian, W. Chen, S Chandrasekaran, B. Yao, Y. Song, E.B. Duoss, J.D. Kuntz, C.M. Spadaccini, M.A. Worsley, and Y. Li, 3D Printed Functional Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Nano Today 15, 107 (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.nantod.2017.06.007.

S. Chandrasekaran, P.G. Campbell, T.F. Baumann, and M.A. Worsley, Carbon Aerogel Evolution: Allotrope, Graphene-Inspired, and 3D-Printed Aerogels, Journal of Materials Research 32 (22), 4166 (2017), doi: 10.1557/jmr.2017.411.

M.M. Durban, J.M. Lenhardt, A.S. Wu, W. Small, T.M. Bryson, L. Perez-Perez, D.T. Nguyen, S. Gammon, J.E. Smay, E.B. Duoss, J.P. Lewicki, and T.S. Wilson, Custom 3D Printable Silicones with Tunable Stiffness Macromolecule Rapid Communications 39 (4), 29210493 (2017), doi: 10.1002/marc.201700563.

J.S. Oakdale, R.F. Smith, J.‐B. Forien, W.L. Smith, S.J. Ali, L.B.B. Aji, T.M. Willey, J. Ye, A.W. van Buuren, M.A. Worthington, S.T. Prisbrey, H.‐S. Park, P.A. Amendt, T.F. Baumann, and J. Biener, Direct Laser Writing of Low‐Density Interdigitated Foams for Plasma Drive Shaping, Advanced Functional Materials 27 (43), 1702425 (2017), doi: 10.1002/adfm.201770257. [Featured on cover]

O. Ergen, S.M. Gilbert, T. Pham, S.J. Turner, M.T.Z. Tan, M.A. Worsley, and A. Zettl, Graded band gap perovskite solar cells, Nature Materials 16, 522 (2017).

N.J. Cherepy, P.R. Beck, S.A. Payne, E.L. Swanberg, B.M. Wihl, S.E. Fisher, S. Hunter, P.A. Thelin, C.J. Delzer, S. Shahbazi, A. Burger, K.S. Shah, R. Hawrami, L.A. Boatner, M. Momayezi, K. Stevens , M.H. Randles, and D. Solodovnikov, History and Current Status of Strontium Iodide Scintillators, SPIE Optical Engineering+ Applications 10392, 1039202 (2017), doi: 10.1117/12.2276302.

S.K. Saha, J.S. Oakdale, J. Cuadra, C. Divin, J. Ye, J.-B. Forien, L.B. Aji, J. Biener, and W. Smith, Radiopaque resists for two-photon lithography to enable submicron 3D imaging of polymer parts via X-ray computed tomography, ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces 10 (1), 1164 (2017), doi: 10.1021/acsami.7b12654.

J. Xu, N.J. Cherepy, J. Ueda, and S. Tanabe, Red persistent luminescence in rare earth-free AlN: Mn2+ phosphor, Materials Letters 206, 175 (2017).

Y. Song, T. Liu, F. Qian, C. Zhu, B. Yao, E.B. Duoss, C.M. Spadaccini, M.A. Worsley, and Y. Li, Three-dimensional Carbon Architectures for Electrochemical Capacitors, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 509, 529 (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2017.07.081.

R.D. Sanner, N.J. Cherepy, and V.G. Young, Jr., Blue Light Emission from Cyclometallated Iridium (III) Cyano Complexes: Syntheses, Crystal Structures, and Photophysical Properties, Inorganica Chimica Acta, 440, 165 (2016).

I.K. Jones, Z.M. Seeley, N. Cherepy, C. Zhu, E. Duoss, and S.A. Payne, Functionally Graded Solid-State Laser Gain Media Fabricated by Direct Ink Write and Ceramic Processing, ASSL, Lasers Congress AW3A.2 (2016).

H. Long, A. Harley‐Trochimczyk, T. Pham, Z. Tang, T. Shi, A. Zettl, C. Carraro, M.A. Worsley, and R. Maboudian, High Surface Area MoS2/Graphene Hybrid Aerogel for Ultrasensitive NO2 Detection, Advanced Functional Materials 26 (28), 5158 (2016), doi: 10.1002/adfm.201601562. [Featured on cover]

K.S. Holliday, T.A. Kohlgruber, I.C. Tran, D. Åberg, Z.M. Seeley, M Bagge-Hansen, A.M. Srivastava, N.J. Cherepy, and S.A. Payne, Increased fluorescence intensity in CaTiO3: Pr3+ phosphor due to NH3 treatment and Nb co-doping, Optical Materials 60, 359 (2016).

T. Liu, C. Zhu, T. Kou, M.A. Worsley, F. Qian, C. Condes, E.B. Duoss, C.M. Spadaccini, and Y. Li, Ion Intercalation Induced Capacitance Improvement for Graphene‐Based Supercapacitor Electrodes, Chem. Nano Mat. 2 (7), 757 (2016), doi: 10.1002/cnma.201600182. [Featured on cover]

A. Harley-Trochimczyk, T. Pham, J. Chang, E. Chen, M.A. Worsley, A. Zettl, W. Mickelson, and R. Maboudian, Platinum Nanoparticle-loading of Boron Nitride Aerogel and Its Use as a Novel Material for Low Power Catalytic Gas Sensing, Advanced Functional Materials 26, 433 (2016). [Featured on cover]

J.S. Oakdale, J. Ye, W.L. Smith, and J. Biener, Post-print UV Curing method for improving the mechanical properties of prototypes derived from two-photon lithography, Optics Express 24 (24), 27077 (2016).

N.J. Cherepy, S.A. Payne, N.M. Harvey, D. Åberg, Z.M. Seeley, K.S. Holliday, I.C. Tran, F. Zhou, H.P. Martinez, J.M. Demeyer, A.D. Drobshoff, A.M. Srivastava, S.J. Camardello, H.A. Comanzo, D.L. Schlagel, and T.A. Lograsso, Red-emitting manganese-doped aluminum nitride phosphor, Optical Materials 54, 14 (2016).

J. Ye, Y. An, E. Montalvo, P.G. Campbell, M.A. Worsley, I.C. Tran, Y. Liu, B.C. Wood, J. Biener, H. Jiang, M. Tang, and Y.M. Wang, Solvent-directed sol-gel assembly of 3-dimensional graphene-tented metal oxides and strong synergistic disparities in lithium storage, J. Mater. Chem. A 4, 4032 (2016), doi: 10.1039/C5TA10730J. [Featured on cover]

C. Zhu, T. Liu, F. Qian, T.Y.-J. Han, E.B. Duoss, J.D. Kuntz, C.M. Spadaccini, M.A. Worsley, and Y. Li, Supercapacitors Based on Three-Dimensional Hierarchical Graphene Aerogels with Periodic Macropores, Nano Lett. 16 (6), 3448 (2016), doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04965. [Featured on cover]

N.J. Cherepy, R.D. Sanner, P.R. Beck, E.L. Swanberg, T.M. Tillotson, S.A. Payne, and C.R. Hurlbut, Bismuth- and Lithium-Loaded Plastic Scintillators for Gamma and Neutron Detection, Nucl. Instr. Methods Phys. A 778, 126 (2015).

A. Burger, E. Rowe, M. Groza, K.M. Figueroa, N.J. Cherepy, P.R. Beck, S. Hunter, and S.A. Payne, Cesium hafnium chloride: A high light yield, non-hygroscopic cubic crystal scintillator for gamma spectroscopy, App. Phys. Lett. 107 (14), 143505 (2015).

C. Zhu, T.Y.-J. Han, E.B Duoss, A. Golobic, J.D. Kuntz, C.M. Spadaccini, and M.A. Worsley, Highly Compressible 3D Periodic Graphene Aerogel Microlattices, Nature Commun., 6, 6962 (2015). [Highlighted in Chemical & Engineering News]

T.P. Pham, A.P. Goldstein, J.P. Lewicki, S.O. Kucheyev, C. Wang, T.P. Russell, M.A. Worsley, L. Woo, W. Mickelson, and A. Zettl, Nanoscale Structure and Superhydrophobicity of sp2-bonded Boron Nitride Aerogels, Nanoscale 7, 10449 (2015).

M. Bagge-Hansen, B.C. Wood, T. Ogitsu, T.M. Willey, I.C. Tran, A. Wittstock, M.M. Biener, M.D. Merrill, M.A. Worsley, M. Otani, C.-H. Chuang, D. Prendergast, J. Guo, T.F. Baumann, T. van Buuren, J. Biener, and J.R.I. Lee, Potential-Induced Electronic Structure Changes of Supercapacitor Electrodes Observed by In Operando Soft X-ray Spectroscopy, Adv. Mater. 27, 1512 (2015).

J.M. Lenhardt, S.H. Kim, M.A. Worsley, R.N. Leif, P.G. Campbell, T.F. Baumann, and J.H. Satcher, ROMP Crosslinkers for the Preparation of Aliphatic Aerogels, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 408, 98 (2015).

P.G. Campbell, M.A. Worsley, A.M. Hiszpanski, T.F. Baumann, and J. Biener, Synthesis and Functionalization of 3D Nano-graphene Materials: Graphene Aerogels and Graphene Macro Assemblies, Journal of Visual Experiments 105, e53235 (2015).

N.J. Cherepy, Z.M. Seeley, S.A. Payne, E.L. Swanberg, P.R. Beck, D.J. Schneberk, G. Stone, R. Perry, B. Wihl, S.E. Fisher, S.L. Hunter, P.A. Thelin, R.R. Thompson, N.M. Harvey, T. Stefanik, and J. Kindem, Transparent Ceramic Scintillators for Gamma Spectroscopy and MeV Imaging, SPIE Optical Engineering+ Applications 9593, 95930P (2015).

M.A. Worsley, S.J. Shin, M.D. Merrill, J. Lenhardt, A.J. Nelson, L. Woo, A.E. Gash, and C.A. Orme, Ultra-low Density, Monolithic WS2and MoS2Aerogels, ACS Nano, 9, 4698 (2015).

L.A. Boatner, J.O. Ramey, J.A. Kolopus, J.S. Neal, N.J. Cherepy, P.R. Beck, S.A. Payne, A. Burger, E. Rowe, and P. Bhattacharya, Advances in the growth of alkaline-earth halide single crystals for scintillator detectors, SPIE Optical Engineering+ Applications 9213, 92130J (2014).

P.G. Campbell, M.D. Merrill, B.C. Wood, E. Montalvo, M.A. Worsley, T.F. Baumann, and J. Bienera, Battery/supercapacitor hybrid via non-covalent functionalization of graphene macro-assemblies, J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 17764 (2014), doi: 10.1039/C4TA03605K. [Featured on cover]

Q. Chen, W. Cai, T. Hajagos, D. Kishpaugh, C. Liu, N. Cherepy, A. Dooraghi, A. Chatziioannou, S. Payne, and Q. Pei, Bulk-Size Transparent Gadolinium Oxide-Polymer Nanocomposites for Gamma Ray Scintillation, Nanotech 295, (2014).

S. Dasgupta, D. Wang, C. Kübel, H. Hahn, T.F. Baumann, and J. Biener, Dynamic Control Over Electronic Transport in 3D Bulk Nanographene via Interfacial Charging, Advanced Functional Materials 24 (23), 3473 (2014), doi: 10.1002/adfm.201470148. [Featured on cover]

Z.M. Seeley, N.J. Cherepy, and S.A. Payne, Expanded Phase Stability of Gd-Based Garnet Transparent Ceramic Scintillators, J. Mater. Res. 29, 2332 (2014).

N.J. Cherepy, Z.M. Seeley, S.A. Payne, P.R. Beck, E.L. Swanberg, S. Hunter, L. Ahle, S.E. Fisher, C. Melcher, H. Wei, T. Stefanik, Y.-S. Chung, and J. Kindem, High energy resolution transparent ceramic garnet scintillators, SPIE Optical Engineering+ Applications, 9213, 921302 (2014).

A.J. Pascall, F. Qian, G. Wang, M.A. Worsley, Y. Li, and J.D. Kuntz, Light-Directed Electrophoretic Deposition: A New Additive Manufacturing Technique for Arbitrarily Patterned 3D Composites, Advanced Materials 26, 2252 (2014).

A.P. Goldstein, W. Mickelson, A. Machness, G. Lee, M.A. Worsley, L. Woo, and A. Zettl, Simultaneous Sheet Cross-Linking and Deoxygenation in the Graphene Oxide Sol-Gel Transition, J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 28855 (2014).

M.A. Worsley, T.P. Pham, A. Yan, S.J. Shin, J.R.I. Lee, M. Bagge-Hansen, W. Mickelson, and A. Zettl, Synthesis and Characterization of Highly Crystalline Graphene Aerogels, ACS Nano 8, 11013 (2014). [Highlighted in Chemical & Engineering News]

M.A. Worsley, S. Charnvanichborikarn, E. Montalvo, S.J. Shin, E.D. Tylski, J.H. Satcher, Jr., J. Biener, T.F. Baumann, and S.O. Kucheyev, Toward macroscale, isotropic carbons with graphene-sheet-like electrical and mechanical properties, Advanced Functional Materials 24, 4259 (2014).

R. Hawrami, J. Glodo, K.S. Shah, N. Cherepy, S. Payne, A. Burger, and L. Boatner, Bridgman bulk growth and scintillation measurements of SrI2:Eu2+, Journal of Crystal Growth 379, 69 (2013).

L.A. Boatner, J.O. Ramey, J.A. Kolopus, R. Hawrami, W.M. Higgins, E. Van Loef, J. Glodo, K.S. Shah, E. Rowe, P. Bhattacharya, E. Tupitsyn, M. Groza, A. Burger, N.J. Cherepy, and S.A. Payne, Bridgman growth of large SrI2:Eu2+ single crystals: A high-performance scintillator for radiation detection applications, Journal of Crystal Growth 379, 63 (2013).

S.H. Kim, S.J. Shin, J.M. Lenhardt, T. Braun, J.D. Sain, C.A. Valdez, R.N. Leif, S.O. Kucheyev, K. J. J. Wu, J. Biener, J.H. Satcher, and A.V. Hamza, Deterministic Control over High‐Z Doping of Polydicyclopentadiene- Based Aerogel Coatings ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 5, 8111 (2013).

N.J. Cherepy, Z.M. Seeley, S.A. Payne, P.R. Beck, O.B. Drury, S.P. O’Neal, K. Morales Figueroa, S. Hunter, L. Ahle, P.A. Thelin, T. Stefanik, and J. Kindem, Development of Transparent Ceramic Ce-Doped Gadolinium Garnet Gamma Spectrometers, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 60 (3) 2330 (2013).

Z.M. Seeley, N.J. Cherepy, and S.A. Payne, Homogeneity of Gd-based garnet transparent ceramic scintillators for gamma spectroscopy, Journal of Crystal Growth 379, 79 (2013).

N.J. Cherepy, S.A. Payne, B.W. Sturm, O.B. Drury, S.P. O’Neal, P.A. Thelin, K.S. Shah, R. Hawrami, M. Momayezi, B. Hurst, A. Burger, B. Wiggins, P. Bhattacharya, L.A. Boatner, and J.O. Ramey, Instrument Development and Gamma Spectroscopy with Strontium Iodide, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 60, (2) 955 (2013).

W. Cai, Q. Chen, N. Cherepy, A. Dooraghi, D. Kishpaugh, A. Chatziioannou, S. Payne, and Q. Pei, Synthesis of bulk-size transparent gadolinium oxide–polymer nanocomposites for gamma ray spectroscopy, J. Mater. Chem. C 1 (10), 1970 (2013).

M. Rousseas, A.P. Goldstein, W. Mickelson, M.A. Worsley, L. Woo, and A. Zettl, Synthesis of Highly Crystalline sp2-bonded boron nitride aerogels, ACS Nano 7 (10), 8540 (2013), doi: 10.1021/nn402452p.

Z. Seeley, N. Cherepy, and S. Payne, Two-step sintering of Gd0.3Lu1.6Eu0.1O3 transparent ceramic scintillator, Opt. Mater. Express 3 (7), 908 (2013).

N.J. Cherepy, R.D. Sanner, T.M. Tillotson, S.A. Payne, P.R. Beck, S. Hunter, L. Ahle, and P.A. Thelin, Bismuth-Loaded Plastic Scintillators for Gamma Spectroscopy and Neutron Active Interrogation, IEEE Nuc. Sci. Symp. Conf. Record N41-3 (2012).

M.E. Suss, T.F. Baumann, W.L. Bourcier, C.M. Spadaccini, K.A. Rose, J.G. Santiago, and M. Stadermann, Capacitive desalination with flow-through electrodes, Energy Environmental Science 5, 9511 (2012).

L.H. Shao, J. Biener, H.J. Jin, M.M. Biener, T.F. Baumann, and J. Weissmüller, Electrically Tunable Nanoporous Carbon Hybrid Actuator, Advanced Functional Materials 22, 3029 (2012).

J.W. Heemskerk, R. Kreuger, M.C. Goorden, M.A. Korevaar, S. Salvador, Z.M. Seeley, N.J. Cherepy, E. van der Kolk, S.A. Payne, P. Dorenbos, and F.J. Beekman, Experimental comparison of high-density scintillators for EMCCD-based gamma ray imaging, Phys. Med. Biol. 57, 4545 (2012).

S.H. Kim, M.A. Worsley, C.A. Valdez, S.J. Shin, C. Dawedeit, T. Braun, T.F. Baumann, S.A. Letts, S.O. Kucheyev, K.J.J. Wu, J. Biener, J.H. Satcher, and A.V. Hamza, Exploration of the versatility of ring opening metathesis polymerization: an approach for gaining access to low density polymeric aerogels, RSC Advances 2, 8672 (2012).

R. Hawrami, C. Hines, I. Abselem, V. Biteman, J. Vaghini, J. Glodo, P. O’Dougherty, K.S. Shah, N. Cherepy, S. Payne, A. Burger, and L. Boatner, Latest advances in large diameter SrI: Eu and CLYC: Ce scintillators for isotope identification, SPIE Optical Engineering+ Applications 8507, 850716 (2012).

J. Biener, S. Dasgupta, L. Shao, D. Wang, M.A. Worsley, A. Wittstock, J.R.I. Lee, M.M. Biener, C.A. Orme, S.O. Kucheyev, B.C. Wood, T.M. Willey, A.V. Hamza, J. Weissmüller, H. Hahn, and T.F. Baumann, Macroscopic 3D Nanographene with Dynamically Tunable Bulk Properties, Advanced Materials 24 (37), 5017 (2012), doi: 10.1002/adma.201290225. [Featured on cover]

J. Biener, S. Dasgupta, L. Shao, D. Wang, M.A. Worsley, A. Wittstock, J.R.I. Lee, M.M. Biener, C.A. Orme, S.O. Kucheyev, B.C Wood, T.M. Willey, A.V. Hamza, J. Weissmüller, H. Hahn, and T.F Baumann, Macroscopic 3D Nanographene with Dynamically Tunable Bulk Properties, Adv. Mater. 24, 5083 (2012), doi:10.1002/adma.201202289.

M.A. Worsley, S.O. Kucheyev, H.E. Mason, M.D. Merrill, B.P. Mayer, J.P. Lewicki, C.A. Valdez, M.E. Suss, M. Stadermann, P. Pauzauskie, J.H. Satcher, Jr., J. Biener, and T.F. Baumann, Mechanically Robust 3D Graphene Macroassembly with High Surface Area, Chem. Comm. 48, 8428 (2012).

T. Martin, P.-A. Douissard, Z. Seeley, N. Cherepy, S. Payne, E. Mathieu, and J. Schuladen, New High Stopping Power Thin Scintillators Based on Lu2O3 and Lu3Ga5-xInxO12 for High Resolution X-ray Imaging, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 59, 2269 (2012).

T.F. Baumann, A E. Gash, and J.H. Satcher, A Robust Approach to Inorganic Aerogels: The Use of Epoxides in Sol-Gel Synthesis, in Aerogels Handbook, M. Aegerter, N. Leventis, and M.M. Koebel (Eds.), Springer, New York, 2011.

J. Biener, M. Stadermann, M. Suss, M.A. Worsley, M. Biener, K.A. Rose, and T.F. Baumann, Advanced Carbon Aerogels for Energy Applications, Energy & Environmental Science 4, 656 (2011).

M.A. Worsley, T.Y. Olson, J.R.I. Lee, T.M. Willey, M.H. Nielsen, S.K. Roberts, P.J. Pauzauskie, J. Biener, J.H. Satcher, Jr., and T.F. Baumann, High Surface Area, sp2-Cross-Linked Three-Dimensional Graphene Monoliths, J. Phys. Chem. Letters 2, 921 (2011).

D.J. Lorang, D. Tanaka, C.M. Spadaccini, K.A. Rose, N.J. Cherepy, and J.A. Lewis, Photocurable Liquid Core-Fugitive Shell Printing of Optical Waveguides, Advanced Materials 23, 43 5055 (2011).

P.J. Pauzauskie, M.A. Worsley, T. Laurence, A.L. Kilcoyne, Y.M. Wang, T. Willey, K. Visbeck, S. Fakra, W. Evans, and J.H. Satcher, Synthesis and characterization of nanocrystalline diamond aerogel, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 8550 (2011). [Highlighted in Nature]

M.A. Worsley, P.J. Pauzauskie, T.Y. Olson, J.H. Satcher, and T.F. Baumann, Synthesis of graphene aerogel with high electrical conductivity, J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 132, 14067 (2010).

M.A. Worsley, S.O. Kucheyev, J.H. Satcher, A.V. Hamza, and T.F. Baumann, Mechanically robust and electrically conductive carbon nanotube foams, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 073115 (2009). [Selected by Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science and Technology]

M.A. Worsley, S.O. Kucheyev, J.D. Kuntz, A.V. Hamza, J.H. Satcher, and T.F. Baumann, Stiff and Electrically Conductive Composites of Carbon Nanotube Aerogels and Polymers, Journal of Materials Chemistry 19,3370 (2009).

T.F. Baumann, T.V. Jones, T. Wilson, A.P. Saab, and R.S. Maxwell, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel PDMS Nanocomposites using POSS Derivatives as Cross-Linking Filler, Journal of Polymer Science A: Polymer Chemistry 47, 2589 (2009).

T.F. Baumann, M.A. Worsley, T.Y. Han, and J.H. Satcher, High surface area carbon aerogel monoliths with hierarchical porosity, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 354, 3513 (2008).

T.F. Baumann, A.E. Gash, G.A. Fox, J.H. Satcher, and L.W. Hrubesh, Oxidic Aerogels, in: Handbook of Porous Solids, F. Schüth, K. Sing, and J. Weitkamp (Eds.), Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002.